While inhumanism is too radical to receive wide reception， transhumanism is too suspicious of intensifying the arrogance inherent in the classic humanism， and posthumanism remains too vague and metaphysical to be applicable， we need a new paradigm to help us comprehend our position in the universe and direct us to reform， or even to revolutionize， our patterns of thought and behavior。 We need something more explicit and trustworthy than metaphysical wordplay。Ecological humanism serves the purpose。
D。 Ecological Humanism
There has been sporadic talk about ecological humanism in both Western and Chinese academia since the latter part of the last century。 Henryk Skolimowski published a small tract entitled“Ecological Humanism”in 1975，but unfortunately the book is out of print and is hard to find。In 1997，She Zhengrong wrote an article，“Toward Ecological Humanism”，in which he divided the development of humanism into three stages：nature-oriented humanism， science-and-technology-oriented humanism， and ecological humanism。He pointed out the destructive effects on nature of the science-and-technology-oriented humanism， which he equaled to anthropocentrism， and proposed that ecological humanism should be a more constructive form of civilization， in which the human-nature relationship would transform from one of conquest and exploitation to one between child and mother， part and whole， dweller and home（43）。
However， She Zhengrong's proposition of ecological humanism rests mainly with the critique of the Western worship of science and technology and a redefinition of the human-nature relationship。It serves well as an introduction but is inadequate for a thorough and comprehensive study。In America， two articles came out in 2001 and 2003 that bear“ecological humanism”on the title。Both articles demonstrate the writers'perception in their critique of the hegemonic control of classic humanism and their far sight in proposing ecological humanism as a solution to the exigent situation Homo sapiens are in face of， but their discussions of ecological humanism are far from suffcient。Both refer to it very briefy， as suggested solutions after lengthy discussion of weaknesses of classic humanism， but neither makes much in-depth explanation。
On the whole， ecological humanism as a concept is still in its inception。 Existing discussions about it are rather flimsy and want of system。They are mostly intuitive and empirical， and the advocacy of the concept has been largely ignored。On basis of a common understanding of animal studies， environmental ethics， and the new developments of humanism， and with a belief that the concept of ecological humanism is highly in order in the contemporary ecological context， I hereby venture to make a systematic and comprehensive exposition of its central propositions。
Simply put， ecological humanism， or eco-humanism for short， means humanism rectifed with an ecological consciousness。 Resituating humans in the ecological sphere， it rejects the long-standing mythology of the reign of man and proposes to conceptualize humans as equal citizens of the biotic community。No longer the domineering master looking down upon other species from his elevated throne， man sees the world horizontally and in terms of connection， as a web of symbiotic relations that feature interdependence and mutual beneft rather than combat and conquest。On this life-breathing web， the human community is but one knot linking others and being linked by others。
As in the cases of inhumanism and posthumanism， ecological humanism grounds its argument in the critique of classic humanist assumptions；but unlike them， eco-humanism does not stop at deconstructing and subverting established concepts。 It also proposes remedies for their follies。
1.Critique of centrism and dualism。Ecological humanism rejects the narrow-minded egocentric way of thinking in classic humanism。In effect， it tries to discard all the ideologies of centrism that have prevailed in the Western thought， with logocentrism as the root for other forms of centrism， including Eurocentrism， androcentrism， and anthropocentrism。For the ecological humanists， one form of such centric thinking is always interlocked with another， and it always results in discrimination， injustice， domination， and oppression。As an alternative， they take up a more open， heterogeneous worldview in treating with relations both within the human community and in the larger ecological world， both inter-personal and inter-species。
Eco-humanism also denounces the Western mindset of dualism that sees mind in opposition to body， soul to fesh， reason to emotion， men to women， and most of all， human to nature。 As Val Plumwood puts it， the human/nature dichotomy has helped create ideals of culture and human identity that promote human distance from， control of， and ruthlessness towards the sphere of nature as the Other， while minimizing non-human claims to the earth and to elements of mind， reason and ethical consideration（4）。A holistic view that emphasizes interdependence， connection， and equality will help rescue the world that suffers from such divisions and restore the wholesome livelihood to humans， nonhumans， and the ecosystem as a whole。In light of this view， human beings are equal biotic citizens in the ecosphere。Untrammeled from the self-delusion of mastery and supremacy， they will enjoy a new kind of freedom and a new sense of selfhood， and above all， new fellowship with other species in the biosphere。
2.Critique of rationalism。Ecological humanism sees the Western cult of reason as fundamentally destructive in that it gives man a false illusion of omniscience and omnipotence， and thus fills him with hubris and ignorant confdence。Feeling like God， man wields his mental power like a naughty boy with his toy sword。The results are manifold：the rapid development of science and technology that alienates humans more and more from their natural environment and the biological home while bringing apparent ease and comfort to their lives， the modernization of warfare that facilitates large scale of killing without evoking in the killer the least sense of remorse， the invention of nuclear weapons that can bring horrible deaths not only to humans but everything hit upon and around， the unbridled exploitation of the natural resources， and the justification and naturalization for the exploitation and subjugation of anything and anybody that is considered closer to nature， thus irrational：animals， women， children， peasants， aboriginals……Plumwood points out succinctly that the reason-centered culture of the West has not only allowed the ecological crisis to deepen to the current dangerous point， but also at one time facilitated the Western domination of other modest and ecologically-adapted cultures on this planet。For her， the current ecological crisis is a“crisis of reason”（5）。
To help people abandon the indiscriminating faith in reason is to emancipate them from their“mind-forged manacles”，in the words of William Blake。 Like Issac Newton in Blake's painting， humans have long had their visions limited and enclosed by an ill-directed reasoning mind， so that the vastness， mystery， and beauty of the wide world is blocked out from him。Now it is time for them（us）to look up and beyond， to see， to hear， to feel， as well as to comprehend the world with more deliberation and intensity。As Lacan wittily formulates，“I think where I am not， therefore I am where I do not think。”The reasoning mind has abducted our subjectivity and autonomy for too long， we now need a break。Withoutthe intervention of the prosthetic tools of reasoning， we might be able to resume our unmediated， visceral experience of the world around us and enjoy being part of it。
3.Recognition of the innate value of nature。Ecological humanism rejects the mechanistic understanding of nature that has dominated the Western thought since the 17th century。Instead of treating nature as a self-moving machine， eco-humanism emphasizes nature's autonomy and agency。They believe that man's power to understand nature and control it is very limited。Nature has its innate value and power that we have to respect。It is far from being the objectified thing-in-itself that we can manipulate， abuse， and exploit at will。On the contrary， it is an autonomous organic system that has its own laws and order。It does not only provide humans with water， air， food， and other necessities and resources as well as physical settings for social activity， but also generate life itself， including the human life and millions of other life forms。Nature is the Mother of life， the destruction of whom will lead to the destruction of all。Only when we can respect and live by the laws of nature can we achieve ecological sustainability。
4.Extension of the humanistic ideals。Ecological humanism continues to value such humanistic ideals as life， liberty， equality， fraternity， self-realization， justice， natural right， etc。as central guidelines in treating relationships。Even Cary Wolfe agrees that the point of posthumanism is not“to reject humanism tout court—indeed， there are many values and aspirations to admire in humanism”（2010：xvi）。A central task of eco-humanism is to extend humanistic aspirations such as equality， liberty， and fraternity to the nonhuman world。There is a general politics of boundary breakdown on all levels：gender， class， race， ethnicity， nationality， sexuality， age， disabilities， and species。Ecological humanism denounces the hierarchical understanding of the human/animal relationship and treat nonhuman animals as independent and equal subjects-of-life and ends-in-themselves， instead of means and instruments for human purposes。Equal moral consideration is extended to nonhuman animals， and“Reverence for Life”is valued as the fundamental principle of conduct。Even the lowest organisms on the evolutionary scale are not excluded。The interspecies relationship is one of cohabitation， symbiosis， interdependence， and interconnection。Any act of disrespectful， mindless， or wasteful use or consumption is denunciated。
5.A wise use of human reason and a redefnition of the human role。Although ecological humanism attacks the cult of rationalism and scientism in classic humanism and endeavors to decenter humanity， it is not to say that humans are debased to the point of complete helplessness and their capacity of reasoning to be absolutely repressed from functioning。Human race's special capabilities are still treasured， including the reasoning power。“It is not reason itself that is the problem，”argues Plumwood in her book devoted to the debunking of the“ecological crisis of reason”，“but rather arrogant and insensitive forms of it that have evolved in the framework of rationalism and its dominant narrative of reason's mastery of the opposing sphere of nature and disengagement from nature's contaminating elements of emotion， attachment and embodiment。”She believes reason can be useful rather than hazardous for the human survival in the ecological crisis。“Reason has been made a vehicle for domination and death；it can and must become a vehicle for liberation and life”（Plumwood 5）。
Even the most critical writers agree that humans have special qualities and graces that give them special powers。 Humans are the only species that are capable of refecting their behavior and making amendments。This makes it possible for us to mend our ways in our treatment of animals and the natural environment。Some critics also point out that humans are the only species that can think on behalf of other species， so that it is possible that we extend humane consideration to nonhuman species。As Midgley notes，“It is one of the special powers and graces of our species not toignore others， but to draw in， domesticate and live with a great variety of other creatures。No other animals do so on anything like so large a scale。Perhaps we should take this peculiar human talent more seriously and try to understands its workings”（1983：111）。To her， the capacity to extend sympathy beyond the species barrier is not an invented faculty， but innate in human nature。It is an evolutionary development that enables humans to excel in their dealing with the environment。Therefore， she concludes，“Evolutionarily speaking， then， it is likely that a species such as ours would fnd itself equipped for the position which some Old Testament texts give it， of steward and guardian， under God， placed over a range of creatures which he is in principle able to care for and understand， rather than in the one often imagined in science fction， of an invader exploiting an entirely alien planet”（1983：122，emphasis added）。
The effort to redefine the human role as stewards and guardians in hopes of restoring the ecological integrity is a keynote in ecological humanism。 Grounded in the respect for human's special values， it assigns them special obligations。This might abhor radical posthumanists like Cary Wolfe。They might consider the advocacy for the wise use of human powers as a clinging dream to the old superstition in human perfectibility。However， unlike transhumanism which envisions human evolution by means of technological enhancement in order to retain their mastery position， eco-humanism postulates a wise use of his powers as necessary tools for the benefit of the entire ecosphere。Besides， as Tony Davies， Kate Soper， and many others have observed， the humanist standpoint is inescapable for any anti-humanist thinking。The decentering of humanity does not absolve us from the responsibility of taking care of the biotic community。After all， we are the only species that can practice conscious moral agency for others， although this difference does not endorse supremacy or privilege。The most important form of care， of course， is that we make the best use of reason to curb our own behavior and diminishthe damage we wreak to the other species and the environment。We have played havoc with the integrity， stability， and beauty of the biosphere， it is our duty now to clean up the mess。