书城哲学人的安全与联合国
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第24章 『人的安全』问题的出现(8)

【101】 Security Council Resolution 757,30 May 1992;770,13 August 1992;781,9 Oc-tober 1992 .安理会在1993年3月31日通过的第816号决议规定,军事航班的禁令被延伸至所有未经授权的航班。这项决议要求各成员国实施该项禁令。

【102】 Security Council Resolution 820,17 April 1993 .

【103】 Security Council Resolution 798,18 December 1992 .

【104】 Security Council Resolution 808,20 February 1993 .

【105】 Security Council Resolution 819,16 April 1993 .

【106】 Security Council Resolution 824,6 May 1993 .

【107】 Security Council Resolution 1031,15 December 1995 .

【108】 Security Council Resolution 929,29 June 1994 .

【109】联合国保护部队(UNPROFOR)是一个例外。尽管有明文规定,要确保人道主义行动参与者的安全,但是援助人员依然表达了不满,因为保护部队并没有援助受益人的安全。

【110】东帝汶的例子引发了重要的新问题:假如这种同意是被迫的,那还能称之为“同意”吗?

【111】例如,作为回应,不结盟运动声称,“我们抵制所谓的‘人道主义干涉’,因为它在联合国宪章及其他文件里没有法律依据”,引用自1999年9月23日在纽约举办的不结盟运动国家外长会议的“最后联合声明”,网址:http://www.nam.gov.za/minmeet/newyork-com.htm,accessed 12 November 2004。引言来自《南方会议宣言》(2000年4月在哈瓦那举行的77国峰会)的第77段。南方峰会宣言同样明确地重申了这一点。

【112】关于这一点,可参见David Rieff’s comments on the role of Philip Johnston(of CARE USA),in A Bed for the Night:Humanitarianism in Crisis(New York:Vintage,2002),34-35。

【113】一位90年代初曾经负责维和行动的前联合国高官指出,当人的安全这一概念刚被提出时,他并没有太在意,因为觉得这样的讨论过于理论化,但是在索马里和前南斯拉夫的经历改变了他的看法。他回忆道,从直升机中看到前南斯拉夫的少数民族平民住房被轰炸的情景,这令他想到维和行动没有足够重视人的利益。资料来源于2003年10月28日的访谈。

【114】 Eric Dachy(Médecins sans Frontières-Belgium),quoted in Rieff,A Bed f or the Night,136 .

【115】 UNHCR,State of the World’s Refugees 1997,45 .

【116】 José Maria Mendiluce,as quoted in Rieff,A Bed for the Night,144 .

【117】一位参与起草报告的联合国难民事务高级专员认为,“该组织当时处于两难困境之中,一方面希望将其权限延伸至传统的与难民相关的关切之外,另一方面又受制于该组织中所规定的传统保护问题”。资料来源于2003年10月27日的电子邮件交流。

【118】加拿大外长劳埃德·艾克斯沃西首次在1996年联合国大会上使用该术语。

【119】 Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade,Human Security:Safety for People in a Changing World,6 .

【120】参与国有澳大利亚、加拿大、智利、希腊、爱尔兰、约旦、马里、荷兰、挪威、瑞典、斯洛文尼亚、泰国,南非还处在观望的阶段。Available online at:http://www.humansecuri-tynetwork.org,accessed 12 November 2004.

【121】 Commission on Global Governance,Our Global Neighbourhood,81-82 .

【122】 General Assembly Resolution 53/35,30 November 1998 .

【123】参见他写给安理会的信件:Security Council document S/1999/339,18 March 1999 .

【124】 See Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 53/35:The Fall of Srebrenica(General Assembly document A/54/549),15 November 1999;1994 Gen-ocide in Rwanda(Security Council document S/1999/1257),16 December 1999 .

【125】关于该官员的政府的叙述,可参见Roméo Dallaire and Brent Beardsley,Shake H ands with the Devil:The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda(Toronto:Random House,2003)。

【126】 Neil MacFarlane,“Politics and Humanitarian Action,”Occasional Paper No .41(Providence,R .I .:Thomas J .Watson Jr .Institute for International Studies,2000),57-58 .

【127】受卢旺达支持的叛军占领了难民营。大部分难民回到了卢旺达。然而,被卷入到1994种族大屠杀的相当多的胡图人被驱逐了到西部的扎伊尔(Zaire)的内陆地区。

【128】 Statement by the President o f the Security Council(Security Council document S/PRST/1999/6),12 February 1999 .

【129】 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the Protection of Ci-vilians in A rmed Conf lict(Security Council document S /1997/957),8 September 1999 .

【130】 Ibid,para .30 .

【131】 Ibid .,para 40 .他很谨慎地提出,在行动前,安理会必须考虑侵权的范围,当地政府是否具备维持秩序的能力,是否自身涉及侵权行为,有没有可能采取更加和平的行动,安理会是否能够控制局面,使用武力的适度性等问题。

【132】 Security Council Resolution 1265,17 September 1999,para .10 .一名加拿大外交官将这段话理解为安理会对人的安全理念的接受。Interview,9 November 2002 .

【133】 Security Council Resolution 1296,19 April 2000,paras .5 and 8 .Italics in the Resolution .

【134】 Identical letters Dated 21 A ugust 2000 f rom the Secretary-General to the Presi-dent of the General Assembly and the President of the Security Council(General Assembly document A/55/305 and Security Council document S/2000/809),21 August 2000,paras .41 and 47b .

【135】 Ibid .,para .62 .

【136】 Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization(General As-sembly document A/54/1),1999 .

【137】 Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization(General As-sembly document A/55/1),2000 .

【138】 Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization(1999),paras . 46 and 52 .

【139】 Ibid .,para .50 .See also Kofi Annan,We the Peoples:The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century,43 .

【140】 Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization(1999),paras .66-67 .

【141】 Annan,We the Peoples,48 .

【142】 Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization(2000),paras .30-31 .

【143】 Ibid .,para .37 .

【144】 ICISS,The Responsibility to Protect,vii .

【145】 Francis Deng,Sadikiel Kimaro,Terry Lyons,Donald Rothchild,and I .William Zartman,Sovereignty as Responsibility:Conflict Management in A frica(Washington,D . C .:The Brookings Institution,1996).

【146】关于这些原则的评价,可参见S .Neil MacFarlane,Carolin Thielking,and Jenni-fer Welsh,“The Responsibility to Protect:Assessing the Report of the International Com-mission on Intervention and State Sovereignty,”The International Journal 57(Autumn 2002):487-512。

【147】 Alex J .Bellamy and Matt McDonald,“‘The Utility of Human Security’:Which Humans?What Security?A Reply to Thomas and Tow,”Security Dialogue 30(September 2002):373-377;and Nicholas Thomas and William T .Tow,“Gaining Security by Trashing the State?A Reply to Bellamy and McDonald,”Security Dialogue 30(September 2002):379-382 .

【148】也就是指重建的国家;ICISS,The Responsibility to Protect,41 .

【149】关于这些观点的进一步评论,可参见Welsh,T hielking,and M acFarlane,“T he Responsibility to Protect,”496-505 .

【150】 Adam Roberts,“The Price of Protection,”Survival 44(Winter 2002-2003):157 .

【151】”没有人指望在两天之内解决人道主义干涉问题。这次讨论是为了使该议题得到足够的重视。”Mohamed Sahnoun,Le Monde,3 June 2002 .

【152】”Aide Memoire:For the Consideration of Issues Pertaining to the Protection of Civilians during the Security Council’s Deliberation of Peacekeeping Mandates”(Security Council document S/PRST/2002/6),15 March 2002 .

【153】 High-level Panel on Threats,Challenges and Change,A More Secure World,21-22,56 .〔2〕 See Lisa Martin and Jeffrey Laurenti,The United Nations and Economic Sanc-tions(New York:UN-USA,1997),24-25 .For an earlier warning along these lines,see Commission on Global Governance,Our Global Neighborhood,107 .

【154】 Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council on the Protection of Ci-vilian in A rmed Conf lict(Security Council document S/1999/957),8 September 1999,para .25 .

【155】 Annan,We the Peoples,50 .

【156】 Security Council Resolution 1296,2000,para .22 .

【157】 Security Council Resolution 1267,15 October 1999;Security Council Resolution 1333,19 December 2000 on Afghanistan,Security Council Resolution 1343,7 March 2001;and Security Council Resolution 1478,6 May 2003 regarding Liberia .

【158】关于因特拉肯进程(Interlaken Process)的信息,可参见http://www.smartsanc-tions.ch,accessed 12 November 2004。因特拉肯进程的一个主要成果就是通过了布朗大学国际研究所的托马斯· J.沃顿(Thomas J.Watson)提出的关于设计和实施的草案:Targe-ted Financial Sanctions:A Manual for Design and Implementation(Providence,R.I.:Thomas J.Watson Jr.Institute of International Studies,2001).

【159】与者提交了由迈克尔·波佐斯卡(Michael Brzoska)撰写的研究报告:Design and Implemen-tation of Arms Embargoes and Travel-and Aviation-Related Sanctions(Bonn and Berlin:Bonn International Centre for Conversion,2001).See http://www.bicc.de/events/unsanc,accessed 12 November 2004.该倡议由波恩国际军用转民用中心进行协调,并得到了德国外交部的支持。参

【160】关于斯德哥尔摩进程的背景,可参见http://www.smartsanctions.se,accessed 12 November 2004。Making Targeted Sanctions Ef fective:Guidelines for the Implemen-tation of UN Policy Options(Uppsala,Sweden:Department of Peace and Conflict Re-search,Uppsala University,2003).

【161】 High-level Panel on Threats,Challenges and Change,A More Secure World,32 .

【162】 CSCE,“Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE,”Copenhagen,5-29 June 1990,available online at:http://www.osce.org/docs/english/1990-1999/hd/cope90e.htm,accessed 13 March 2005.

【163】 See William Pfaff,“Shock,Awe and the Human Body,”International Herald T ribune,22 December 2004,6 .尤其是国防部2003年3月的一个法律行动小组,总统作为行动的总指挥,不受任何国际或本土的关于虐囚规定的法律限制。

【164】相反,在第37段,成员国声称:“以上条约的解释不得违背联合国宪章精神,或任何国际法律及其补充条约,包括维护国家领土统一的原则。”“Document of the Moscow Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE,”Moscow,15 October 1991,available online at:http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/1991/10/13995_en.pdf.

【165】 CSCE,“Document of the Moscow Meeting of the Conference of the Human Di-mension of the CSCE,”Preamble .

【166】在起草之时,文件规定了五项人道主义原则,其中两项由两个国家单独提出,希望程序可以得到外界审查。三项由参与国共同提出,主要是关于其他国家的发展问题。在车臣、科索沃、克拉吉纳、阿巴卡扎亚、纳戈尔诺、卡拉巴赫等地区冲突中,这些原则没有能够得到落实。

【167】关于《伦敦宣言》,可参见由北约各国首脑参加的会议所发布的《北约转型宣言》:London,6 July 1990,available online at:http://www.nato.int/docu/comm/49-95/c900706a.htm,accessed 2 December 2004.

【168】”The Alliance’s Strategic Concept Agreed by the Heads of State and Government Par-ticipating in the Meeting of the North Atlantic Council,”Rome,8 November 1991,available online at:http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b920604a.htm,accessed 2 December 2004.

【169】这并不意味着保护平民是北约军事行动的唯一甚至主要的理由。

【170】”The Alliance’s Strategic Concept Approved by the Heads of State and Govern-ment Participating in the Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Washington,D .C .on 23rd and 24th April 1999,”para .3,available online at:http://www.nato.int/docu/pr/1999/p99-065e.htm,accessed 2 December 2004.

【171】 Ibid .,para .29 .

【172】 Ibid .,paras .31 and 54 .《北大西洋公约》第五条声明,成员国有参与集体自卫军事行动的义务。其他条约里规定的行动指的是非自卫性质的军事行动。

【173】该词来自科索沃独立国际委员会。The Kosovo Report:Conf lict,International Response,Lessons Learned(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000),4 .

【174】 ICISS,The Responsibility to Protect,55 .

【175】 Western European Union Council of Ministers,Petersberg Declaration,19 June 1992,para .II .4,available online at:http://www.weu.int,accessed 24 December 2004.

【176】 See Amsterdam Inter-Governmental Conference,Declaration Relating to Western Eu-ropean Union,in European Union,“The Treaties Establishing the European Communities and Re-lated Acts,”10 November 1997,available online at:http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/treaties/dat/amsterdam.html#0125030020,accessed 20 November 2004;European Council Delaration on strengthening the Common European Policy on Security and Defence,Annex III to“Presidency Conclusions:Cologne European Council 3 and 4 June 1999,”available online at:http://ue.eu.int/en/Info/eurocouncil/index.htm,accessed 21 November 2004.

【177】 See British-Frech Summit,Joint Declaration(the St .Malo Declaration),4 De-cember 1998,available online at:http://www.iss-eu.org/chaillot/chai47e.html#3,access-ed 21 November 2004.

【178】 See“Presidency Conclusions:Cologne”(Annex III),and“Presidency Conclu-sions:Helsinki .”The Helsinki conclusions envisaged a force of some 50,000-60,000 soldiers“capable of the full range of Petersberg tasks .”

【179】”Presidency Report on Strengthening the Common European Security and Defence Poli-cy,”Annex I to“Presidency Conclusions:European Council,Santa Maria da Feira,19-20 June 2000,”para.III .3(d),available online at:http://www.iss-eu.org/chaillot/chai47e.html#26,ac-cessed 21 November 2004.所有在注释94—97中引用的欧洲文件均在马加特·路腾(Maartje Rut-ten)处存有精装本。“From St.Malo to Nice-European Defence:Core Documents,Chaillot Papers No.47(Paris:Institute for Security Studies,Western European Union,May 2001).

【180】关于早期的明确评论,可参见“EU Agrees to Develop Battle Group Teams,”In-ternational Herald Tribune,23 November 2004,3。

【181】 Security Council Resolution 1484,30 May 2003 .

【182】”The Constitutive Act [of the African Uninon],”Lomé,Togo,11 July 2000,Article 4h,available online at:http://www.africa-union.org/About_AU/Constitutive_Act.htm.

【183】 Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union,Durban,South Africa,9 July 2002,available online at:http://www.afri-caunion.org/Official _ documents/Treaties _% 20Conventions _% 20Protocols/Protocol _peace% 20and% 20security.pdf,accessed 21 November 2004.

【184】 2003年12月完成了对该条约的修订。See“Decision on the Operationalization of the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council,”16 December 2003,As-sembly/AU/Dec.16(II),available online at:http://www.africa-union.org/Official_documents/Decisions_Declarations/Assembly% 20AU% 20Dec% 2016% 20II.pdf,accessed 21 November 2004. 2004年12月,有37个成员国批准了该议定书。

【185】 SADC,Protocol on Political,Defence and Security Co-operation,Blantyre,Ma-lawi,August 14,2001,Article 2 .2 .e and f,available online at:http://www.sadc,int/in-dex.php?lang= englishpath= legal/protocols/page= p_politics_defence_and_security_cooperation,accessed 21 November 2004.

【186】 Ibid .,Article 11 .2 .b .i .

【187】关于两位合作者之一所作的分析,可参见S .Neil MacFarlane,“Intervention in Contemporary World Politics,”Adelphi Paper No .350(London:Oxford University Press for the International Institute for Strategic Studies,2002),58-60。

【188】关于不结盟运动及77国对于科索沃的军事干涉的反应,参见注释25。

【189】”Inter-American Democratic Charter,”Lima,Peru,11 September 2001,Articles 1,7,and 21,available online at:http://www.oas.org/charter/docs/resolution_en_p4.htm,accessed 21 November 2004.

【190】在1992年10月6日通过的780号决议中,安理会成立了一个专家委员会,来评估在前南斯拉夫领土上发生的违反《日内瓦公约》及其他国际法的行为。

【191】 Security Council Resolution 808,22 February 1993;Security Council Resolution 827,25 M ay 1993,annex .

【192】 Security Council Resolution 955,8 November 1994 .

【193】关于这一点,可参见Darryl Robinson,“Case Study:The International Criminal Court,”in Human Security and the New Diplomacy:Protecting People,Promoting Peace,edited by Rob McRae and Don Hubert(Montreal and Kingston:McGill-Queen’s U-niversity Press,2001),171。

【194】国际刑事法庭的构想最早可见于崔尼德(Trinidad)与托宝戈(Tobago)向联合国提出的议题,他们希望成立一个国际性的组织来审判贩卖毒品的案件。20世纪90年代早期,国际刑事法庭的重点从战争罪转向了反人类罪。See Coalition for the International Criminal Court,“A Timeline of the Establishment of the International Criminal Court .”A-vailable online at:http://www.iccnow.org/pressroom/factsheets/CICCFS_Timeline_Sep-to4.pdf,accessed 14 M ay 2005.

【195】也就是国际刑事法庭非政府组织联盟,它已经成为拥有2000多个成员的网络。相关背景可参见http://www.iccnow.org,accessed 12 November 2004。

【196】联合国大会于1947年建立了国际法委员会,来制定和编撰国际法律。

【197】”Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court”(General Assembly document A/CONF .183/9),17 July 1998 .

【198】 Article 7 .1 .g .The Rome Statute is available online at:http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/basicdocuments/rome_statute(e).html,accessed 12 November 2004.

【199】 Ibid .,Article 7 .1 .d .

【200】关于禁止地雷运动的发展,丹·休伯特(Don Hubert)的研究最为权威。“The Landmine Ban:A Case Study in Humanitarian Advocacy,”Occasional Paper No .42(Provi-dence,R .I .:Thomas J .Watson Jr .Institute for International Studies,2000).该研究是本文引用资料的主要来源。

【201】由亚洲观察、人权观察、人权医生等组织赞助撰写的报告尤其具有权威性:Eric Stover and Rae McGrath,Landmines in Cambodia:The Coward’s War(New York:Asia Watch/Human Rights Watch and Physicians for Human Rights,1991).

【202】 Boutros Boutros-Ghali,An Agenda for Peace— Preventive Diplomacy,Peace-making and Peace-keeping:Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to the Statement A-dopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 31 January,1992(General As-sembly document A/47/277 and Security Council document S/24111),17 June 1992,para . 58;and Boutros-Ghali,“Foreword,”in Kevin Cahill,Cleaning the Fields:Solutions to the Global Landmines Crisis(New York:Basic Books,1995),xiv .

【203】 Hubert,The Landmine Ban,17 .

【204】 2004年11月,已有143个国家批准了该条约。See“State Party to the Ottawa Treaty,”available online at:http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteengo.nsf/iwpList108/3418BAA4 D78AE8ACC1256B66005B33B7,accessed 21 November 2004.

【205】 Hubert,The Landmine Ban,25 .

【206】例如联合国人道主义事务部及联合国教科文组织参与了渥太华会议的前期准备工作,同时,联合国机构也作为观察员出席了1996年10月的会议。

【207】 Hubert,The Landmine Ban,20 .

【208】 Land mines continue to produce 15,000 to 20,000 new casualties each year .Carol Bella-my,The State of the World’s Children 2005:Childhood under Threat(NY:UNICEF,2004),46,available online at:http://www.unicef.org/sowco5/english/sowco5_chapters.pdf,accessed 14 De-cember 2004.

【209】 Ibid.

【210】关于更多的细节,可参见“Canada’s Guide to the Global Ban on Landmines,”available online at:http://www.mines.gc.ca/III/III_B-en.asp,accessed 14 December 2004。