[22] One result of this principle is， that the poor who are exempt from taxation or who are on the poor list have no vote， which is the case in England and in Prussia. - Through another result of the same principle， the law of May 15， 1818， in France， summoned the heaviest taxpayers， in equal number with the members of the municipal council， to deliberate with it every time that "a really urgent expenditure"obliged the commune to raise extra additional centimes beyond the usual 0 fr. 05. "Thus，" says Henrion de Pancey ("Du pouvoir municipal，" p.109)， "the members of the municipal councils belong to the class of small land-owners， at least in a large number of communes， voted the charges without examination which only affected them insensibly." - This last refuge of distributive justice was abolished by the law of April 5， 1882.
[23] Max Leclerc， "Le Vie municipale en Prusse." (Extrait des "Annales de l'Ecole libre des sciences politique，" 1889， a study on the town of Bonn.) At Bonn， which has a population of 35，810 inhabitants， the first group is composed of 167 electors： the second， of 471； the third， of 2607， each group elects 8 municipal councilors out of 24.
[24] De Foville， "La France économique，" p. 16 (census of 1881). -Number of communes， 36，097； number below 1000 inhabitants， 27，503；number below 500 inhabitants， 16，870. - What is stated applies partly to the two following categories： 1st， communes from 1000 to 1500inhabitants， 2982； 2nd， communes from 1500 to 2000 inhabitants， 1917.
- All the communes below 2000 inhabitants are counted as rural in the statistics of population， and they number 33，402.
[25] See Paul Leroy-Beaulieu， "L'état moderne et ses fonctions，" p.
169. "The various groups of inhabitants， especially in the country， do not know how to undertake or agree upon anything of themselves. I have seen villages of two or three hundred people belonging to a large scattered commune wait patiently for years and humbly petition for aid in constructing an indispensable fountain， which required only a contribution of 200 or 300 francs， 5 francs per head， to put up. Ihave seen others possessing only one road on which to send off their produce and unable to act in concert， when， with an outlay of 2000francs， and 200 or 300 francs a year to keep it in order， it would easily suffice for all their requirements. I speak of regions relatively rich， much better off than the majority of communes in France."[26] In French villages， on one of the walls of a public building on the square are notices of all kinds， of interest to the inhabitants， and among these， in a frame behind a wire netting， the latest copy of the government official newspaper， giving authentic political items， those which it thinks best for the people to read. (Tr.)[27] On the communal system in France， and on the reforms which， following the example of other nations， might be introduced into it， cf. Joseph Ferrand (formerly a prefect)， "Les Institutions administratives en France et à l'étranger"； Rudolph Gneist， "Les Réformes administratives en Prusse accomplies par la legislation de 1872，" (especially the institution of Amtsvorsteher， for the union of communes or circumscriptions of about 1500 souls)； the Duc de Broglie， "Vues sur le gouvernement de la France" (especially on the reforms that should be made in the administration of the commune and canton)， p. 21. - "Deprive communal magistrates of their quality as government agents； separate the two orders of functions； have the public functionary whose duty it is to see that the laws are executed in the communes， the execution of general laws and the decisions of the superior authority carried out， placed at the county town."[28] De Foville， ibid.， p. 16. - The remarks here made apply to towns of the foregoing category (from 5000 to 10，000 souls)， numbering 312.
A last category comprises towns from 2000 to 5000 souls， numbering 2160， and forming the last class of urban populations； these， through their mixed character， assimilate to the 1817 communes containing from 1500 to 2000 inhabitants， forming the first category of the rural populations.
[29] Max Leclerc， "La Vie municipale en Prusse，" p 17. - In Prussia， this directing mind is called "the magistrate，" as in our northern and northeastern communes. In eastern Prussia， the "magistrate" is a collective body； for example， at Berlin， it comprises 34 persons， of which 17 are specialists， paid and engaged for twelve years， and 17without pay. In western Prussia， the municipal management consists generally of an individual， the burgomaster， salaried and engaged for twelve years.
[30] Max Leclerc， ibid.， p.20. - "The present burgomaster in Bonn was burgomaster at Münchens-Gladbach， before being called to Bonn. The present burgomaster of Crefeld came from Silesia . . . . A lawyer， well known for his works on public law， occupying a government position at Magdeburg，" was recently called "to the lucrative position of burgomaster " in the town of Münster. At Bonn， a town of 30，000inhabitants， "everything rests on his shoulders he exercises a great many of the functions which， with us， belong to the prefect."[31] Max Leclerc， ibid.， p. 25. - Alongside of the paid town officers and the municipal councilors， there are special committees composed of benevolent members and electors "either to administer or superintend some branch of communal business， or to study some particular question." "These committees， subject， moreover， in all respects to the burgomaster， are elected by the municipal council." - There are twelve of these in Bonn and over a hundred in Berlin. This institution serves admirably for rendering those who are well disposed useful， as well as for the development of local patriotism， a practical sense and public spirit.
[32] Aucoc， p. 283.